Maori Warfare:
A study of conflict, conquest and change
May 30, 2001
The aboriginal population of New Zealand has inhabited the islands since the early migration of Maori ancestors eastward out of Southeast Asia. In the pre-contact period, the Maori were a complex society based on inter-tribal relations, subsistence through garden cultivation, and intricate kinship networks. This paper seeks to understand the world of the Maori today, by exploring the construction and development of its culture through history. From first voyages through colonial oppression to today’s urbanization, the Maori have persevered because of a strong cultural heritage formed through identification with their natural environment, complex social ties, and the development of Maori cultural awareness after the decimation of their traditional culture by British colonization.
New Zealand is a far-flung island chain, remotely placed far in the South Pacific to the east of Australia. The North Island is more temperate than the rugged mountainous cold South Island. The climate is cooler and drier today, compared with warmer weather previous to 1200AD. Along with a challenging climate, the flora and fauna of New Zealand are not substantial enough to support a large population. In the past, the Moa, a large flightless bird, was the largest game; though it is today extinct due to over-exploitation. Now, there are no indigenous large land animals or fruits besides berries. Marine resources include eels, seals, shellfish, as well as fresh water fish. The lack of numerous resources provided a situation resulting in the development of garden cultivation in Maori culture. This example illustrates the interconnectedness of the Maori to their environment; to the land.
The world of the Maori begins with its spiritual foundation; its myths and beliefs. The Maori creation myth holds that Ranginui and Papatuanuku, the Sky Father and Earth Mother, existed in one of the three states of existence, the first: Te Kore, the Void. Out of the Void, came Te Po, the Darkness, and other gods. Lastly came Te Aomarama, the World of Light, and the Maori. The Maori believe that their gods live in the mythic homeland of Hawaiiki. This is where creation began and all mythic occurrences happen. Along with the creation myth, the Maori have oral traditions about the actual ancestral migration to Aotearoa, the Maori name for New Zealand.
The oral tradition maintains that the Maori ancestors came from “a hot country named Irihia (Elsdon, 1923)”, an ancient name for India. These ancestral voyagers came east out of Southeast Asia into Melanesia and Western Polynesia. Then, sailing from Central Polynesia, the first New Zealanders arrived around 1000AD. A small migration wave settled with low population densities and numerous resources (Walker, 19xx). The large Moas, sea animals, fishing and foraging, and the plentiful birds sustained the small population. Anthropologists and historians refer to these people as the Moa-hunters or the tangata whenua, people of the land. Within the next four hundred years, another wave of migration would take place. Tribal wars on Tahiti and Ra’iatea were taking a toll on the resources and residents of those islands. Migration to less populated areas including New Zealand resulted (Reed, 1974).
This wave of people brought new technologies and practices that added to the development of today’s Maori. Sweet potatoes, yams, taro, dogs and rats were introduced to the islands with this influx of people. In addition, a sedentary agricultural settlement pattern was introduced to complement the new plants that could be cultivated and stored. Walker characterizes the time period with this new wave of settlers as the Proto-Maori phase. These Proto-Maori overtook the Moa-hunters through conquest, intermarriage or both. As small sedentary populations grew, boundaries were created. As tribes began to experience conflict between neighbors, a village and fort type of settlement developed. Papakainga, or villages, and the Pa forts allowed for the development of food caching and the ability to support specialized laborers. Carving and tattooing are results of this new lifeway. Sedentary life also further reinforced the Maori sense of belonging to the land, as they relied on it for every aspect of their lives.
The Maori took their tribal identities straight from their natural environment. “Prominent physical features on the landscape such as mountains, rivers or lakes were identified with founding ancestors and stood as symbols for a tribe (Walker, 19xx).” Land ownership by tribes and feeling connected to the land carried through into many aspects of Maori culture. “Land ownership at the individual level conferred tuurangawaewae (standing or status) within a tribe (Walker, 19xx)”, while land ownership on a group level ensured food, protection from neighbors, and status. The kinship system of the Maori is based on tribe membership, which serves as a mechanism for passing on land and power, while ensuring it is kept within the tribe.
The Maori social structure is based on status and genealogy. Three strata of rank exist. Various types of chiefs make up the highest rank, followed by commoners, the tutua. Below commoners are slaves, usually taken from enemies during warfare. The most basic social distinction is waka. These canoe clans started with the Proto-Maori and were used to validate claims to mana and land (Walker, 19xx). Next clans were subdivided into iwi, or tribes. Hapu are sub-tribal divisions that are usually expressed through residential location. The extended family is distinguished as one’s whanau and includes uncles, cousins and others. Genealogical sub-groupings that have aided the distribution of resources and land have also developed into a local status system. Tapu, the sacred measurement of a person, was expressed in many ways. Ariki, tribal leaders, gained tapu through genealogical means as well as ability. Tribal leadership is done in a marae, a meetinghouse. Rangatira, the noble born, possess tapu and hold positions of power, while skilled craftsmen, Tohunga, gain tapu through their skills.
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